Country Context: Nuclear in Indonesia
Indonesia has promulgated its ongoing interests in harnessing nuclear energy for national development, notably since our second and longest-serving president passed the Law of Nuclear No. 10/1997 nearly three decades ago. According to the Indonesian National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), the research and development (R&D) of power and radiation from atomic nuclei have been fundamental in advancing our energy and healthcare sectors (BRIN, 2023a). With its high energy density, nuclear power is globally prospected to be a future low-carbon technology breakthrough for complementing renewables in achieving sustainable energy transition (Zhan et al., 2021). Moreover, the extensive radiation emanating from nuclear presents evident benefits to the healthcare industry as well, including for medical imaging and radiotherapy (Hricak et al., 2021).
As a country with an estimated 80,000 tonnes and 140,000 tonnes of uranium and thorium resources, respectively, Indonesia is close to establishing the initiation of its Nuclear Energy Programme Implementing Organisation (NEPIO), aiming to accelerate the innovative technology and policy development (BRIN, 2024; NEI, 2023). Despite these opportunities, the role of nuclear energy in our industries remains contested due to its risks, both environmentally and ethically (Cho et al., 2021). This article explores the multifaceted potentials of the nuclear energy applications in Indonesia, underscoring the significance of recent innovations and further challenges and consideration.
Transitioning Energy Systems through Nuclear Power Generation
Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) operate through nuclear fission, a process where the atomic nucleus of an unstable particles (e.g. Uranium-235) splits into smaller parts when absorbing neutrons, creating chained reactions and therefore releasing a vast amount of energy (Image 1) (MIT, 2023). This energy is then utilised to produce steam and move turbines to generate electricity. Due to its high energy density and low carbon emission, nuclear energy naturally befits the role of additional clean energy sources required in achieving the state of net-zero emission future in Indonesia (Permana et al., 2022).
Image 1. The process of nuclear fission (Source: (MIT, 2023))
While renewable-based power plants are typically intermittent, NPP is considered reliable due to its relatively high capacity factor (92.5%), even higher compared to average Coal-fired Power Plant (CFPP) units (US DOE, 2021). Together with geothermal and hydropower, nuclear power can be a viable option to be paired with Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) technologies like solar photovoltaic (PV) or wind to balance our power generation mix. Moreover, the steady energy release from the chain reactions provides reliable low-carbon electricity, essential for meeting continuous industrial demands and replacing a substantial amount of baseload coal power generation in large economies like the United States, China, and Russia (NEI, 2021).
According to the Indonesian National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), the preparations of NPP development in Indonesia started in 2009, and had been reviewed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (NEI, 2023). Although no NPP unit has yet to be in operation, Indonesia has made notable progress with developing three research nuclear reactors (Image 2) (Permana et al., 2022). The Triga Reactor in Bandung and the Kartini Reactor in Yogyakarta have been operated since 1965 and 1979, and are currently being used mostly for educational and R&D purposes (BRIN, 2023b, 2022). Meanwhile, the latest unit is a multi-functional G.A. Siwabessy Reactor in Serpong that has been utilised for over 30 years for radioisotope production, neutron activation analysis, and material testing (BRIN, 2023a; OGI, 2016). Despite various maintenance, inspections, and retrofitting have been performed to ensure safe operations of these reactors, none of them commenced to the commercial phase due to market, safety and social considerations (BRIN, 2024; Hamdi and Chia, 2021).
These Indonesian reactors and other Southeast Asian countries are mostly categorised as the first and second generations (Gen I & II), serving as prototypes and early commercial models with pressurised water or boiling water (PWR/BWR) as medium to generate electricity. Commercialised NPPs from 1990s onward generally use Gen III+ reactors with significant improvements in passive-safety features (emergency cooling), thermal efficiency, and operational life, following the lesson-learned from the infamous Fukushima accident (Cho et al., 2021). Moreover, considering the high capital investments, the popularity of traditional large-scale NPP units began to fade. Innovations on recent breakthroughs like small-modular reactors (SMRs) is prominent for the emerging countries with an archipelagic feature like Indonesia, as it provides scalable and more flexible solutions for nuclear energy with lower investments and improved safety margin (Zhan et al., 2021).
Revolutionising Healthcare Using The Power of Nuclear Technologies
The use of nuclear technology in the health sector has experienced rapid development over the past few decades (Scott et al., 2024). This technology utilises radioactive isotopes for various diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, significantly improving the quality of healthcare services. The discussion about this technology, usually called nuclear medicine, includes the basics of radioactive isotope processes, applications in diagnostics and therapy, technological innovations such as cyclotrons and reactors, and the opportunities and risks associated with using nuclear technology in medicine.
Nuclear medicine was first introduced by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1929. His invention of creating radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) using a cyclotron proved invaluable in medical applications (Long, 2007). Nuclear medicine usually uses unstable radioisotopes that are commonly administered through intravenous (Tafti and Banks, 2023). These isotopes can emit alpha, beta, or gamma particles when they have radioactive decay that can be used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The radioisotope is used for diagnostic imaging using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) for diagnostic purposes. Fluorine-18 (F-18) is one of the samples of radioisotopes that can be used for PET scans to detect cancer in a patient's body by injecting the radioisotope inside the body. Then, a PET scan will detect the radiation emitted from a patient's body (Goud et al., 2020). After the PET detector counts the radiation's activity, it will produce an image showing the body's metabolic and anatomical physiology so the disease can be detected at an early stage.
Radioisotopes are usually used to destroy cancer cells for therapeutic purposes. The most common radioisotope for therapeutic use is Iodine-131 (I-131) for thyroid cancer treatment (PennMedicine, 2024). I-131 is absorbed by the thyroid and emits radiation that can kill cancer cells. This therapy allows for more targeted treatment and reduces damage to surrounding healthy tissue.
Technological innovation continues to drive progress in nuclear medicine. Cyclotrons and nuclear reactors are the main tools that support the use of radioactive isotopes in medical applications. A cyclotron is a particle accelerator used to produce radioactive isotopes (Image 3). It accelerates charged particles, such as protons, to high energy before colliding at a target to produce isotopes (Wang et al., 2022). Cyclotrons are essential in producing isotopes used in PET scans, such as F-18. According to recent updates by the IAEA, there are over 1,500 cyclotron facilities globally, with their interactive map and database now including 1,300 of these facilities from 95 different countries (Peeva, 2021).
Moreover, nuclear reactors are also used in the production of radioisotopes. These reactors utilise nuclear fission to produce neutrons, which are then used to create various isotopes. One of the isotopes produced from nuclear reactors is Molybdenum-99 (Mo-99), which later decays into Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) using a generator (Image 4), the most commonly used isotope in SPECT diagnostics. In addition to F-18 and I-131, some of the other key isotopes in nuclear medicine include Lutetium-177 (used in neuroendocrine cancer therapy) and Gallium-68 (used in PET to detect some types of cancer) (Morgan et al., 2023).
Nuclear technology in medicine offers great opportunities to improve the effectiveness of diagnosis and treatment. However, this technology also carries risks that must be managed carefully. The main advantage of nuclear technology is the ability to carry out diagnosis and treatment very precisely. However, it is important to ensure that radiation is used safely and by radiation protection protocols to protect patients and medical personnel from excessive radiation exposure. There are also ethical implications to consider. Nuclear technology must comply with the principles of medical ethics, including informed consent from patients and considerations related to the cost and accessibility of this technology for all levels of society. Overall, nuclear technology has great potential to transform the healthcare landscape, providing more effective diagnostic and therapeutic solutions. However, it is important to continue conducting research and development and ensure strict regulation to minimise risks and maximise benefits for patients.
Economic and Policy Considerations
According to the Law of Energy No. 30/2007, nuclear energy is considered as a ‘new’ energy source, supplementary to the ‘renewables’ originating from replenishable resources. On the verge of oil and gas crises, the government considers nuclear as a future, ‘last-resort’ option in most of its strategic policy documents, providing grounds for further development of NPP in this country (Permana et al., 2022). Further attempts to define more specific targets on NPP can be seen in the Nuclear Energy Outlook by BRIN and the drafts of the National Electricity Plan (RUKN) by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR). However, the attempt to double-down the NPP has been slow due to domestic technological progress and socio-political issues, including the contested public perceptions.
The economics of nuclear power in a country with access to low-cost fossil energies like coal and oil is disputable. The average levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) of NPPs - 9.9 cUS$/kWh - is considered cost-competitive and less-sensitive to fuel prices compared to the gas or coal power plants, but it requires massive amount of capital investments and expenses for decommissioning and waste disposal (WNA, 2023). In addition, safety concerns raised by residents and non-governmental organisations over health and environmental impacts of the disposal site must be addressed, along with disaster risk mitigation particularly for the proposed NPPs in seismically active regions (Cho et al., 2021).
Further Prospects and Challenges
In facing the further challenges and opportunities surrounding nuclear energy development in Indonesia, BATAN’s Radioactive Waste Technology Center (RWTC) and BRIN’s Research Center for Nuclear Fuel Technology and Radioactive Waste (PRTBNLR) actively improve radioactive waste disposal technology and management systems (Wisnubroto, 2010). The role of the Nuclear Energy Supervisory Authority (BAPETEN) in licensing and regulation of nuclear infrastructure became crucial, including to promote the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) with IAEA as a prospective evaluating method for the feasibility of NPPs (BRIN, 2024). Besides these site-specific permits, adopting a generic design assessment (GDA) method might be necessary to formally evaluate typical nuclear facilities, such as the one issued by the British Government’s Office for Nuclear Regulation, with support from their Environment Agency (WNA, 2021).
Additionally, in the field of nuclear medicine, government initiatives and BAPETEN's support have made it possible for FDG (Fluorodeoxyglucose) for PET to be distributed to hospitals nationwide, enabling many healthcare institutions to develop their nuclear medicine departments, which contributes to healthcare equity across regions. Furthermore, the government’s support of BRIN’s research on the DECY-13 cyclotron is vital for producing domestic cyclotrons, ensuring that the country's nuclear medicine sector can be self-sustaining and well-equipped for future needs.
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